Knowledge
Knowledge, as broadly defined in dictionaries, is the awareness or possession of information, facts, truths, or principles. A knowledgeable person possesses a large fund of such knowledge that may be used expertly or wisely in various contexts. Knowledge, which is the term used for Bloom’s lowest cognitive domain level, can be identified and “filtered” for use from many different perspectives. Its breadth is indicated by all the concepts used in languages of nations or of disciplines. Libraries, textbooks, bookstores, and the Internet are a repository of many types of knowledge; they provide access through organization, classification, and search tools. Knowledge includes the comprehension and understanding that spans all disciplines, companies, institutions, and governments and which can be taught to others. It also includes the application knowledge and working expertise of all workers, parents, and students as they live each day of their lives. It includes the new knowledge that is created through scholarship, scientific research methods, and creative enterprises such as literature, art, movies, designs, and social systems. Note that higher level critical thinking, problem solving, and research skills are needed to create knowledge, but, once created, it enters the pool of general knowledge available to all. Disciplinary and professional associations provide public forums for the sharing of formal knowledge derived from research. All of this knowledge is transferred through formal and informal structures such as schools, social organizations, professional development organizations, and consulting businesses that provide learning opportunities so that citizens will have the knowledge and skills needed to participate effectively in work, politics, the arts, and many other aspects of community life.
Knowledge is constructed through the learning process (2.3.8 Learning Process Methodology), and it can be classified (2.3.9 Forms of Knowledge and Knowledge Tables) into five useful forms: concepts, processes, tools, contexts, ways of being, and knowledge. The constructivist educational perspective on knowledge is central to Process Education principles; it is the basis for the philosophical and practical assumptions of many educators as they design strategies for facilitating knowledge creation (2.1.1 Overview of Learning Theory).
By defining knowledge and its forms we set the stage for the question of how learners can efficiently attain such knowledge. Through the development of “bridging” tools called methodologies (2.3.7 Learning Processes through the Use of Methodologies) educators have been able to provide models for key processes such as learning, problem solving, research, and many others. As learners gain experience with a methodology and improve their performance in a variety of contexts, they increasingly “internalize” the steps, leading to expertise (2.2.3 Developing Working Expertise—Level 4 Knowledge).
Growth
Growth can be viewed from two basic perspectives. The first is related to performance. Almost everyone is motivated to improve performance in the areas they value. According to the module 1.2.1 Theory of Performance, one can predict that performance will increase if any of the following five areas are improved: knowledge, learning skills, awareness of identity, experience in a new context, and factors within the performer’s personal life. The first step in analyzing or assessing growth is to determine which of the five areas of performance is restricting the capacity of a performer. Often a performer will need to improve a key skill from the comprehensive set of transferable learning skills described in the Classification of Learning Skills (2.3.3) modules. For example, a person who is unable to transfer skills or knowledge from one context to another may need to enhance a social or affective skill that is inhibiting exploration of new contexts. Other modules that focus on growing learning skills include 4.2.1 Overview of Mentoring, 3.1.3 Methodology for Creating a Quality Learning Environment, 3.2.5 Creating a Facilitation Plan, and 4.2.2 Becoming a Self-Grower.
Growth leads to improved quality of learning because learners internalize learning skills that are required to reach more complex, better integrated levels of performance. When the performance levels for learners are contrasted with those for self-growers (1.4.5 Performance Levels for Learners and Self-Growers) it is revealed that constructing knowledge alone does not produce growth. This means that it is possible to learn a considerable body of factual and theoretical knowledge, and yet fail to grow the strategies necessary to improve applications of knowledge or to be able to self-assess one’s competency level in the actual use of the knowledge. Accomplished learners, also called enhanced learners and master learners, continue to acquire new learning skills; accomplished self-growers, also called self-starters and star performers, apply learning skills at high levels for all performance challenges. Indeed, such learners are apt to add their own challenges.
Comparing Knowledge and Growth
Knowledge is the result produced from learning. Growth is the result of personal development produced by self-assessment. To help clarify important differences in knowledge and growth, Table 1 presents the distinguishing characteristics, processes, and tools associated with learning (increases in knowledge) and with growth (improvements in learning skills). This is important, as previously noted, because a learner can remain at the same learning performance level despite substantial increases in knowledge. Therefore, the essential challenge for educators is learner development, or the growth referred to as learning to learn. New knowledge and growth are simultaneously produced from an enriched educational environment that includes a well-designed curriculum, effective facilitation, and growth-enhancing assessment practices.
Using Learning Skills to Improve Learning
Learning skills (2.3.4 Cognitive Domain, 2.3.5 Social Domain, and 2.3.6 Affective Domain) are essential for constructing knowledge because they “modulate” or influence what learners can achieve at any level. A useful metaphor is the action of an enzyme in determining the base rate of a chemical reaction. Without strong enough performance in certain learning skills (which are analogous to an enzyme), there can be no growth in the process of constructing knowledge, i.e., in the process of learning to learn in a given area of knowledge. The knowledge construction process for an individual learner is quite complex, but the general knowledge of expert educators makes it possible for them to flexibly address both group and individual needs across many contexts.
Constructing knowledge involves learning skills from the cognitive, social, affective, and psychomotor domains that are relevant to the five performance areas described in 1.2.1 Theory of Performance: increased knowledge, improvement in learning skills, strengthening of identity, increased experience in a new context, and improved factors in the learner’s personal life. Educators must learn to accurately assess which of these five areas is limiting performance and then use assessment to enhance group or individual growth in whichever learning skills will result in needed learning and growth. Consider the following example.
If an educator intends to improve the public speaking of learners, he or she must provide opportunities for the students to demonstrate skills such as assessing their audience, preparing their message, and practicing delivery techniques, all of which are skills in the social domain. In addition, as students infuse valuable knowledge into the message, they must use skills from the cognitive domain, such as information processing, analysis, and synthesis. Students with public speaking phobias may need personalized interventions (3.2.7 Constructive Intervention and 3.2.8 Constructive Intervention Techniques) related to affective domain skills such as managing anxiety, coping, and responding to failure. By improving learning skills relevant to public speaking, the result will be substantial growth in performance in producing and delivering effective speeches, i.e., increased expertise in “speech” knowledge.
Conditions for Growth
Self-growers, who are at the highest level of growth, operate independently of context; they create the conditions for their own growth. At lower levels, however, growth occurs proportionally to the quality of the learning environment (3.1.1 Overview of Quality Learning Environments). A quality learning environment includes the conditions, resources, and interactions that optimally support both learning and growth. Educational researchers (e.g., Wolters, 2003) who explore the processes of self-regulation of behavior, cognition, and motivation provide additional insights about learning versus growth.
Research on self-regulation shows that learners who take individual responsibility perform better and feel that they are more efficacious. Wolters (2003) distinguishes between learners’ self-regulation of cognition and their self-regulation of motivation. Those whose skills are strong in cognitive self-regulation have many and varied cognitive strategies that can be selected or adapted for academic tasks, and they have “metacognitive” knowledge about how these strategies work. Despite its importance and effectiveness in guiding specific performances, however, cognitive self-regulation does not necessarily mean that a learner fully understands the larger motivational influences on his or her own learning. Even metacognition tends to be limited in scope and transferability until growth occurs in personal development areas. Growth in self-regulation of motivation appears to be a key to self-growth in cognitive and behavioral self-regulation. An important implication is that reliable self-regulation of motivation requires that self-assessment skills must be accurate and flexible, and must be consistent with the self-growth level of “Responsive Individuals” or higher (1.4.5 Performance Levels for Learners and Self-Growers).
Growth and the Culture of Higher Education
Unfortunately, there are some aspects of the culture of higher education that have a constraining rather than a facilitating influence on learners’ growth. Among these is the assumption by some that expertise occurs because a learner has acquired enough knowledge within a discipline to become an independent researcher. Another common assumption is that learners will naturally become motivated over time by love of knowledge itself, without need for any special facilitation. It is necessary for educators to use strategies that will produce active learners who internalize the learning process to the point that love of knowledge can be an effective motivator. Educational psychologists call this intrinsic motivation.
Despite constraints caused by attitudes and traditions in higher education, there are strong educational philosophies that support the cultivation of learning skills. One is John Dewey’s classic formulation (1916/2005); another is Tagg’s (2003) learner-oriented perspective on educational processes. Dewey observed that developmental change is essential if learning is not to stagnate into “routine habits.” Learner-oriented approaches recognize that if learners are to acquire truly useful knowledge for their lives and careers, it is of central importance that students take initiative and control of their own learning processes. Neuropsychological theories of “brain-considerate learning” also support these constructivist approaches to learning and growth (2.1.4 From Synapses to Learning—Understanding Brain Processes). Brain development is directly shaped by daily learning experiences. It is known that providing learners with a quality learning environment makes a difference in the physical development of the brain as well as in the quality of learning and growth.
Relation of Learning Outcomes to Growth
For every educational experience it is essential to establish a purpose for learning and growth. Visiting a museum, for example, must have learning objectives that will enhance not only learning but also growth. Learning more about works of art has potential as a foundation for growth in aesthetic judgment; however, without appropriate instructional design that embeds learning skills and growth opportunities within the curriculum, growth will occur only for the fortunate few who have already achieved some degree of self-growth. Research by Bauer & McAdams (2004) and Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon & Deci (2004) demonstrates that facilitating the connection of learning to personal development, values, and consciousness of purpose produces both higher learning performance and growth. The Life Vision Portfolio and the Personal Development Methodology (4.2.3) are tools that help learners make these connections.
Relation of Assessment to Growth
Assessment is the process that supports learning improvement and links it to growth (2.3.2 Framework for Implementing Process Education). Learners become more effective in cognitive and motivational self-regulation as they gain useful feedback on their performances in a variety of contexts and uses. Learning to learn and other forms of growth involve metacognitive awareness of the essential learning skills, strategies, and quality issues involved. Because assessment skills are the most important predictors of future growth opportunities, they must grow in proportion to performance capability.
Concluding Thoughts
Without growth in learning skills, it is not possible to meet high standards for knowledge outcomes, the ultimate goal for both educators and learners. Educators can increase their teaching and mentoring value by modeling how independent learners select and challenge themselves in new areas of performance and knowledge creation. Learners can benefit greatly from an expert who demonstrates why and how to “grow” the skills needed to create useful knowledge. Every day is an opportunity to make this difference.
References
Bauer, J. J., & McAdams, D. P. (2004). Growth goals, maturity, and well-being. Developmental Psychology, 40, 114-127.
Dewey, J. (2005). Democracy & education. (Reprint edition.) New York: Free Press.
Tagg, J. (2003). The learning paradigm college. Boston: Anker.
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic effects of intrinsic goal contents and autonomy-supportive contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 246-260.
Wolters, C. A. (2003). Regulation of motivation: Evaluating an underemphasized aspect of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 38, 189-205.
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Knowledge |
Growth |
|
|
Educational Focus |
Increase in knowledge |
Improvement in learning skills |
|
Educator Methodology |
Teaching—facilitating learning |
Mentoring—facilitating growth |
|
Learner Methodology |
Learning Process Methodology (LPM) |
Personal Development Methodology (PDM) |
|
Perspective on Learning Skills |
Use of learning skills to improve the level of knowledge |
Improvement of learning skills |
|
Process for Improving Performance |
Alignment of learning skills with learning challenge content |
Constructive intervention to transform learning skills |
|
Focus of Assessment |
To validate the accuracy and level of knowledge |
To assess performance to improve skills |
|
Documentation Procedures |
Recorder reports and learning journals |
Reflector reports and learning assessment journals |
|
Measurement Tools |
Bloom’s taxonomy levels, task-specific rubrics |
Performance measures, holistic and analytical rubrics |
|
Measurement for Process Improvement |
Levels of learners |
Levels of self-growth |
|
Characteristics of the Educational Environment |
Focus on buy-in, learning environment, shared commitment, and meeting performance criteria |
Focus on high performance, specific criteria, assessment mindset, improving self-assessment, action plans, and evolving life vision |
|
Tools to Support Strategies |
Clearly stated learning objectives and outcomes, well-designed activities, cooperative learning, and a transparent measurement and evaluation system |
Clearly stated values-based growth goals, integrated learning outcomes, increased challenges, affect management, and a course assessment system |
|
Type of Empowerment |
Learners grow in performance by increasing their breadth and depth of knowledge |
Learners grow in performance by increasing their levels of learning skills |
|
Cycle of Development |
Define learning needs Articulate learning requirements Access and read appropriate information Produce meaningful inquiry Contextualize and transfer Integrate with existing knowledge Validate knowledge |
Target specific growth area/skill Identify coach/mentor Develop short/long term action plan Continuously assess Measure progress Modify action plans as needed Acknowledge and document accomplishments |